Lithium battery
voltage to 3.9 V and increase energy density.
Li-(CF)x (“BR”)
Carbon monofluoride
Lithium tetrafluoroborate in propylene carbonate, dimethoxyethane, and/or gamma-butyrolactone
2.8 V
3.1 V
360
680
Cathode material formed by high-temperature intercalation of fluorine gas into graphite powder. High energy density (250 Wh/kg), 7 year shelf life. Used for low to moderate current applications, eg. memory and clock backup batteries. Very good safety record. Used in aerospace applications, qualified for space since 1976. Used in military applications both terrestrial and marine, and in missiles. Also used in cardiac pacemakers. Maximum temperature 85 C. Very low self-discharge (<0.5%/year at 60 C, <1%/yr at 85 C). Developed in 1970s by Matsushita.
Li-I2
Iodine
solid organic charge transfer complex (eg. poly-2-vinylpyridine, P2VP)
2.8 V
3.1 V
Solid electrolyte. Very high reliability. Used in medical applications. Does not generate gas even under short circuit. Solid-state chemistry, limited short-circuit current, suitable only for low-current applications. Terminal voltage decreases with degree of discharge due to precipitation of lithium iodide. Low self-discharge.
Li-Ag2CrO4
Silver chromate
Lithium perchlorate solution
3.1/2.6 V
3.45 V
Very high reliability. Has a 2.6 V plateau after reaching certain percentage of discharge, provides early warning of impending discharge. Developed specifically for medical applications, eg. implanted pacemakers.
Li-Ag2V4O11, Li-SVO, Li-CSVO
Silver oxide+vanadium pentoxide (SVO)
lithium hexafluorophosphate or lithium hexafluoroarsenate in propylene carbonate with dimethoxyethane
Used in medical applications, eg. implantable defibrillators, neurostimulators, and drug infusion systems. Also projected for use in other electronics, eg. emergency locator transmitters. High energy density. Long shelf life. Capable of continuous operation at nominal temperature of 37 C. Two-stage discharge with a plateau. Output voltage decreasing proportionally to the degree of discharge. Resistant to abuse.
Addition of copper(II) oxide to the cathode material results in the Li-CSVO variant.
Li-CuO
Copper(II) oxide
Lithium Perchlorate dissolved in Dioxolane
1.5 V
2.4 V
Can operate up to 150 C. Developed as a replacement of zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries. “Voltage up” problem, high difference between open-circuit and nominal voltage. Produced until mid-1990s, replaced by lithium-iron sulfide. Current use limited.
Li-Cu4O(PO4)2
Copper oxyphosphate
See Li-CuO
Li-CuS
Copper sulfide
1.5 V
Li-PbCuS
Lead sulfide and copper sulfide
1.5 V
2.2 V
Li-FeS
Iron sulfide
Propylene carbonate, dioxolane, dimethoxyethane
1.5-1.2 V
“Lithium-iron”, “Li/Fe”. used as a replacement for alkaline batteries. See lithium – iron disulfide.
Li-FeS2
Iron disulfide
Propylene carbonate, dioxolane, dimethoxyethane
1.6-1.4 V
1.8 V
297
“Lithium-iron”, “Li/Fe”. Used in Energizer lithium cells as a replacement for alkaline zinc-manganese chemistry. Called “voltage-compatible” lithiums. 2.5 times higher lifetime for high current discharge regime than alkaline batteries, better storage life in e.g. cars in summer due to lower self-discharge, 10 years storage time. FeS2 is cheap. Some types rechargeable. Cathode often designed as a paste of iron sulfide powder mixed with powdered graphite. Variant is Li-CuFeS2.
Li-Bi2Pb2O5
Lead bismuthate
1.5 V
1.8 V
Replacement of silver-oxide batteries, with higher energy density, lower tendency to leak, and better performance at higher temperatures.
Li-Bi2O3
Bismuth trioxide
1.5 V
2.04 V
Li-V2O5
Vanadium pentoxide
3.3/2.4 V
3.4 V
120/260
300/660
Two discharge plateaus. Low-pressure. Rechargeable. Used in reserve batteries.
Li-CoO2
Cobalt dioxide
Li-CuCl2
Copper chloride
Rechargeable.
Li/Al-MnO2
Manganese dioxide
Rechargeable.
Li/Al-V2O5
Vanadium pentoxide
Rechargeable.
Li-ion
carbon
liquid
Rechargeable. See lithium ion battery.
Li-poly
polymer
solid
Rechargeable. See lithium ion polymer battery.
The liquid organic electrolyte is usually a solution of an ion-forming inorganic lithium compound in a mixture of a high-permittivity solvent (eg. propylene carbonate) and a low-viscosity solvent (eg. dimethoxyethane).
Applications
Lithium batteries find application in many long-life, critical devices, such as artificial pacemakers and other implantable electronic medical devices. These devices use specialized lithium-iodide batteries designed to last 15 or more years.